Chromosome-level genome assembly and characterization of Sophora japonica

Sophora japonica is a medium-size deciduous tree belonging to Leguminosae family and famous for its high ecological, economic, and medicinal value. Here, we reveal a draft genome of S. japonica , which was approximately 511.49 Mb long (contig N50 size of 16.15 Mb) based on Illumina, Nanopore and Hi-C data. We reliably assembled 110 contigs into 14 chromosomes, representing 91.62% of the total genome, with an improved N50 size of 31.32 Mb based on Hi-C data. Further investigation identified 271.76 Mb (53.13%) of repetitive sequences and 31,000 protein-coding genes, of which 30,721 (99.1%) were functionally annotated. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that S. japonica separated from Arabidopsis thaliana and Glycine max about 107.53 and 61.24 million years ago, respectively. We detected evidence of species-specific and common-legume WGD events in S. japonica . We further found that multiple TF families (e.g., BBX and PAL) have expanded in S. japonica , which might have led to its enhanced tolerance to abiotic stress. In addition, S. japonica harbors more genes involved in the lignin and cellulose biosynthesis pathways than the other two species. Finally, population genomic analyses revealed no obvious differentiation among geographical groups and the effective population size continuously declined since 2 Ma. Our genomic data provide a powerful comparative framework to study the adaptation, evolution and active ingredients biosynthesis in S. japonica . More importantly, our high-quality S. japonica genome is important for elucidating the biosynthesis of its main bioactive components, and improving its production and/or processing.