Modeling Digital Transformation in Higher Education: A Cipp-based Evaluation of Smart Learning Environments in Resource-constrained Contexts

The transformation of higher education into smart digital learning environments has become a global priority, yet empirical evidence from resource-constrained contexts remains limited. This study models digital transformation as a nonlinear and context-dependent process by integrating the Context–Input–Process–Product (CIPP) evaluation framework with diffusion of innovation theory. Focusing on public universities in Tanzania under the Higher Education for Economic Transformation (HEET) project, the study examines how infrastructure, institutional readiness, and pedagogical practices interact to shape transformation outcomes. A convergent mixed-methods design was employed, drawing on data from 732 participants, including academic staff, students, and institutional leaders across five universities. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics, while qualitative data were examined through thematic analysis. The findings show that large-scale investments significantly improve infrastructure, connectivity, and access, creating enabling conditions for digital transformation. However, persistent misalignment between technological inputs and pedagogical practices constrains the effective use of smart learning environments. Institutional differences were statistically significant, indicating that transformation outcomes are mediated by organisational readiness, leadership, and implementation processes. This study contributes to the literature by advancing a context-sensitive model of digital transformation that highlights the interaction between infrastructure, pedagogical integration, and institutional capacity. It demonstrates that infrastructure alone is insufficient to drive pedagogical change and that transformation unfolds through complex, interdependent processes. The findings offer practical and transferable insights for policymakers and higher education institutions seeking to design integrated, sustainable, and inclusive digital transformation strategies in developing contexts.