Zoos in Latin America: Challenges and Opportunities in Balancing Conservation, Animal Welfare, and Public Education – a Review With Special Reference to Venezuela

Zoos have historically played a complex role in the relationship between human societies and wildlife. In Latin America, zoological institutions emerged during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, largely inspired by European models that prioritized exhibition and recreation. Over time, however, their mission has evolved to include public exhibition, environmental education, research, and ex-situ conservation of Neotropical biodiversity. Despite these changes, zoos in the region remain subject to intense debate regarding animal welfare, ethics, and their effectiveness as conservation institutions. This systematic review synthesizes historical development, typological diversity, operational status, ethical controversies, and welfare challenges across > 300 facilities. A particular focus is placed on Venezuelan zoos, which illustrate how economic, political, and institutional constraints can severely affect animal care and conservation capacity. Using a PRISMA-inspired literature search (Google Scholar, PubMed, Web of Science, 1990–2023), we extracted quantitative and qualitative data on infrastructure, animal collections, conservation outputs, and welfare indicators. Results suggest that while some zoos are increasingly aligning with global conservation standards, many still face significant challenges including insufficient funding, outdated infrastructure, and limited professional capacity. Key results include marked heterogeneity in zoo size and capacity, severe welfare deficits in Venezuela (e.g., Caricuao Zoo population decline from ~ 700 to 150 individuals, 2017), and region-wide shifts toward breeding programs. Recommendations emphasize standardized welfare protocols, inter-institutional partnerships, and evidence-based enrichment. The review underscores the urgent need for regulatory harmonization to align zoos with contemporary ethical and conservation standards.