Vegetation–soil microbiome linkages in urban green spaces: global patterns, methodological biases, and implications for urban ecosystem management

Urban green spaces (UGS) play a critical role in sustaining biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in cities, yet the influence of above-ground vegetation on below-ground soil microbiomes remains poorly synthesized. Urbanization changes land use, plant diversity, and soil properties, which influence soil microbiomes that can shape soil health and diversity. In this study, we conducted a systematic review of 148 studies published between 1990 and 2025 to evaluate how vegetation characteristics are associated with soil microbial communities in urban green spaces. Papers were collected from Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar and systematically screened following PRISMA guidelines with a strict set of exclusion criteria. Across studies vegetation was commonly described using species richness, diversity, and land-use type, while microbial communities were mostly examined at the phylum level, with bacterial and fungal dominating reported outcomes. We discovered a lack of studies across parts of Asia and Africa which may skew a global analysis and make representation uneven.More than 60% of the studies were conducted in temperate transition zones, with < 10% representation from tropical and subtropical regions. Studies reported differences in the composition of the soil microbial community for different vegetation types and land use categories. However, the direct relationship between certain characteristics of the vegetation and the diversity of the microbial community was not often tested, and the representation of the vegetation-related variables was often low compared to the representation of the soil-related variables. The present systematic review has identified knowledge gaps in the understanding of the relationship between plants, soils, and microbes in urban ecosystems, thereby underscoring the need for more research to inform the management of these spaces in an evidence-based manner.These findings highlight the need to integrate vegetation design with soil microbiome considerations in urban green space planning and management.