A Robust, High-Content NAM for Repeatable and Predictive Developmental and Reproductive Toxicity Assessment in C. elegans

Developmental and Reproductive Toxicity (DART) assessment is essential for product safety evaluation and currently relies heavily on vertebrate models that are costly, time-consuming, and resource-intensive. Caenorhabditis elegans has emerged as a promising New Approach Methodology (NAM) for rapid, cost-effective, whole-organism toxicology studies. However, broader adoption has been limited by the lack of high-resolution, rapid imaging approaches, a limited range of endpoints, and insufficient evidence for assay robustness and repeatability. To overcome these limitations, we developed a multiparametric imaging-based assay for assessing DART-related endpoints in C. elegans , building on our previously published microfluidic-based developmental toxicity platform. We expanded the machine learning-based body dimension analysis to include quantification of total embryo number and in utero embryonic development by classifying embryos as early- or late-stage to assess reproductive health. The assay relies on high-resolution brightfield imaging, enabled by the vivoChip microfluidic device, and is compatible with any strain. This study demonstrates highly repeatable results with mean coefficients of variation of 1–5% for developmental endpoints and 6–17% for reproductive-related endpoints, supporting high statistical power. Validation using methylmercury and propiconazole and by phenotyping (scoring and classification) ~ 400,000 embryos across ~ 9,200 worms, demonstrated reproducible, concentration-dependent responses across all endpoints with narrow confidence intervals. Notably, late-stage embryos were the most sensitive endpoint, with effects preceding changes in total embryo count, body size, or viability. Importantly, worms remained > 97% viable and motile across all tested concentrations, indicating that the observed effects reflect DART-specific responses rather than non-specific apical endpoints such as lethality. These results demonstrate a sensitive, repeatable, and scalable DART platform capable of rapid, cost-effective chemical prioritization for safety assessment.