Multi-Elemental Analysis of Lead, Antimony, and Tin in Household Paints and Raw Materials in Southwestern Nigeria

Lead exposure is a critical public health issue, with paint being a primary source in many low- and middle-income countries. However, the potential for concurrent exposure to other toxic elements in paints, such as antimony and tin, remains largely uninvestigated, representing a significant knowledge gap in risk assessment. We conducted a cross-sectional market survey in Southwestern Nigeria, analyzing 10 commercially available paint products and 10 raw materials using Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy. The results were benchmarked against international regulatory standards (90 ppm for lead). The findings were contextualized with data on child exposure behaviors from a related survey to assess potential health risks. Our analysis revealed a widespread non-compliance with safety standards. A staggering 90% of paint samples exceeded the 90 ppm lead limit, with a mean concentration of 1,086 ppm. Alarmingly, we identified widespread and extreme contamination with other toxic elements: antimony (mean: 31,379 ppm) and tin (mean: 35,896 ppm) were present in all samples. Arsenic was detected in 31% of samples, with one sample containing 4,355 ppm. Source analysis identified pigments (Yellow/Red Oxide) and additives (Calgon, PVA) as primary contamination sources. The Nigerian population, particularly children, is exposed to a dangerous combination of toxic elements from paints. This study moves beyond the well-documented lead problem to highlight a broader, under-recognized threat from antimony and tin. There is recommendation for robust enforcement of existing lead paint laws and the immediate expansion of regulatory frameworks to include other toxic metals. Public health interventions must focus on supply chain regulation, consumer awareness, and the promotion of safer alternatives to mitigate this preventable health risk.