Spatial Differentiation of Livelihoods and Gender Experiences in Flood-Related Migration

This study investigates the relationship between area of residence, livelihood patterns, income, household dependency, flood vulnerability, gendered impacts, and migration responses among 400 respondents in Lokoja, Nigeria. A total of 400 respondents participated in the study. The chi-square test reveals a significant association between area of residence and the dominant source of livelihood (χ²(20) ≈ 65.0, p < 0.001). Riverbank/lowland residents (50.5%) were predominantly engaged in trading (31.7%) and artisan/skilled labour (18.8%), whereas upland/highland and peri-urban residents concentrated in civil service (33.3% and 50.0%, respectively). Migration patterns demonstrate localised, circular movements: 36.0% relocate to nearby rural areas, 29.5% to IDP camps, and only 5.0% migrate outside Kogi State. Gender-differentiated flood impacts are spatially patterned: 34.7% of riverbank/lowland residents perceive heightened female risk, while income-related male vulnerability is more evenly distributed (≈ 22–25%). Pearson correlation analysis indicates a moderate negative relationship (r = − 0.46, p < .001) between flood vulnerability and egalitarian gender roles during recovery, suggesting that higher vulnerability reinforces traditional gender divisions. The study concludes that flood exposure, household dependency, and income inequality jointly shape livelihood resilience, migration behaviours, and gendered recovery outcomes in Lokoja, highlighting the need for spatially targeted and gender-responsive flood adaptation policies.