Tap water fluoride exposure and non-carcinogenic risk among children and women in Adama city, Ethiopia

Introduction Drinking water fluoride significantly influences public health, with both deficiency and excess concentration leading to dental and skeletal health concern. In Adama city, Ethiopia, data on fluoride concentrations in tap water and associated health risks remain limited. Methods This study conducted longitudinal measurements of fluoride concentrations in tap water across wet and dry seasons via ion-selective electrode analysis. It calculated the optimum fluoride concentration on the basis of local temperature, and assessed no-carcinogenic health risks among children and women via hazard index values. Result The result showed that varies fluoride concentration during wet and dry seasons were 0.17-1.0 and 0.43–0.9 mg/L, respectively with annual mean of 0.33–0.94 mg/L. It ranged from 0.17 to 1.0 mg/L seasonally, with an optimum concentration of 0.78 mg/L. In dry season, the chronic daily intake of fluoride for children four years old, children five years old, children six years old and women were 0.037 (± 0.0036), 0.035 (± 0.0034), 0.033 (± 0.0032) and 0.025 (± 0.0025) mg/kg/day respectively. Hazard indices exceeded safe thresholds for children but not for women, indicating potential health risks for younger populations. Conclusion These findings suggest the need for continuous monitoring and regulations of fluoride in urban water supplies to safeguard susceptible groups, particularly children, from fluoride-related health effects. Children constitute a group of communities with a potential probability of non-carcinogenic health risks.