Multi-mycotoxin and tropane alkaloid contamination in legume-based foods: a comparative exposure assessment between Italy and Thailand

Legume-based foods are increasingly promoted as sustainable protein sources, yet their safety profile remains insufficiently characterised, particularly regarding the co-occurrence of multiple natural toxins. This study investigated the occurrence of regulated mycotoxins, emerging mycotoxins, and tropane alkaloids in 132 legume-based products collected in Italy and Thailand, including raw legumes, flours and pasta, and snacks. Samples were analysed for 42 compounds using a validated UHPLC–MS/MS multi-analyte method. Overall, 48% of samples were contaminated by at least one toxin, with snacks representing the most affected category in both countries. Distinct contamination patterns emerged: Italian products showed a higher occurrence of regulated mycotoxins and tropane alkaloids, including detections in organic products, whereas Thai samples were dominated by emerging mycotoxins, particularly beauvericin and fusaric acid. Peanut-based products from Thailand included cases exceeding EU maximum limits for aflatoxins. Co-occurrence of multiple toxins was frequent, especially in processed products, highlighting the relevance of cumulative exposure scenarios. Dietary exposure assessment identified legume-based snacks as the main contributors to exposure, driven by frequent consumption and multi-toxin presence. While estimated exposures to most compounds remained below established health-based guidance values, aflatoxins emerged as critical risk drivers in specific scenarios, particularly for high consumers. These findings demonstrate that emerging mycotoxins substantially contribute to the contamination profile of legume-based foods and are not adequately addressed by current regulatory frameworks. The results support the need to expand surveillance and risk assessment strategies beyond regulated mycotoxins to ensure the safety of rapidly growing legume-based food systems.