Fossil fuel combustion emissions: A dominant source of black carbon over the urban site of India and its impact on health risk

This study investigates the characteristics, sources, and health impacts of black carbon (BC) concentrations in three Eastern Indian cities: Jamshedpur (JSR), Kharagpur (KGP), and Rourkela (ROU), through field experiments conducted from November 2021 to January 2022 using an Aethalometer (AE-33). Average BC mass concentrations were observed at 98.66 ± 39.59 µg m ^− 3 in JSR, 92.30 ± 34.06 µg m ^− 3 in KGP, and 94.86 ± 38.20 µg m ^− 3 in ROU, with JSR exhibiting the highest levels. Source apportionment analysis revealed that fossil fuel burning was the predominant source, contributing 57.31% in JSR, 55.03% in ROU, and 50.14% in KGP, primarily due to extensive commercial transportation and industrial activities. Elevated concentrations were noted during cultural events and seasonal transitions. Health risk assessment, using an environmental tobacco smoke approach, indicated significant health hazards, with BC exposure in JSR equivalent to passively smoking 234.4 cigarettes, highlighting substantial risks for cardiovascular mortality and lung cancer. The findings underscore the urgent need for comprehensive control strategies, including promoting renewable energy, cleaner transportation, and stricter emission regulations, to mitigate BC pollution and safeguard public health in urban India.