Palaeoclimatic and ecological determinants of mammalian host–pathogen exposure in Neanderthal-associated sites across Eurasia

Understanding Neanderthal interactions with Late Pleistocene ecosystems requires examining the dynamic interplay between climate, faunal communities, and potential zoonotic exposures. This study analyses 42 Neanderthal-bearing fossil assemblages across Eurasia, focusing on stratigraphic units directly associated with skeletal remains and considering only extant mammal taxa or their close relatives to infer plausible pathogen risks. By integrating palaeoclimate reconstructions with contemporary host–pathogen data, we reconstruct site-specific environmental conditions, distributions of invertebrate vectors, and the presence of mammalian reservoir hosts. Rodents, ungulates, wild suids, and carnivores frequently emerge as potential pathogen carriers, while vector-borne transmission via ticks and sand flies appears climate-dependent. Substantial variation in species richness and inferred pathogen diversity reflects local ecological context and host composition. These results provide an ecologically grounded framework for understanding how environmental and climatic factors shaped Neanderthal exposures to zoonotic agents may have, highlighting the broader role of ecological interactions in hominin health and habitat use, and underscoring the need for further paleopathological evidence to validate predicted patterns.