Bioaccumulation and Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Commercial Fish from the Red Sea, Saudi Arabia

This study investigated the bioaccumulation of trace elements Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), Mercury (Hg), Lead (Pb), Chromium (Cr), Iron (Fe), Nickel (Ni), Copper (Cu), Vanadium (V), Manganese (Mn), and Zinc (Zn) in three commercially significant fish species ( Sardinella longiceps , Herklotsichthys spp. , and Carangoides spp. ). A total of 461 fish samples were collected from four major coastal cities along the Saudi Arabian Red Sea: Umluj, Yanbu, Qunfudah, and Jazan. Metal concentrations were analyzed in both gill and muscle tissues using ICP-MS. Results indicated that essential elements (Fe, Zn, Cu) were generally within safety limits; however, a significant geographic gradient was observed. Jazan emerged as a critical hotspot, with As and Cr levels exceeding FAO/WHO maximum permissible limits in muscle tissue. Statistical analysis (Mann-Whitney U) confirmed that gills sequestered significantly higher concentrations of Mn, Zn, and Fe ( p < 0.05 ) than edible muscles. Human health risk assessments, including Estimated Daily Intake (EDI), Target Hazard Quotient (THQ), and Hazard Index (HI), remained below threshold levels ( < 1.0 ), suggesting no immediate non-carcinogenic threat. However, the Target Cancer Risk (TR) for Arsenic in Jazan (1.15×10 ^− 4 ) slightly exceeded the USEPA negligible risk threshold. These findings identify a distinct north-south pollution gradient, with Jazan representing a priority area for monitoring due to elevated As and Cr levels and a non-negligible carcinogenic risk from arsenic. The low contamination in Umluj provides a valuable regional baseline.