Impact of Farm Structure on Estrus Detection and Reproductive Performance in Dairy Herds: Evidence from Turkey

Background Medium-sized, family-run dairy farms predominate in Turkey, yet field-based evidence from developing-market settings remains limited regarding how farm structure and estrus detection quality relate to reproductive performance. This study examined associations between structural farm characteristics, estrus detection scores, and pregnancy rates across 92 dairy enterprises, using data from 210 cows selected through purposive sampling based on active estrus signs. Farm-level variables (e.g., herd size, housing type, bull presence, personnel) were recorded, and estrus intensity was assessed prior to artificial insemination using a modified Eerdenburg scoring approach; a post-hoc power analysis indicated high statistical power (> 95%). Results Structural characteristics showed no statistically significant association with pregnancy rate (p > 0.05), a pattern plausibly consistent with limited between-farm structural variability within the study region. In contrast, estrus detection scores demonstrated a strong positive relationship with pregnancy outcomes (p < 0.001), indicating that higher clinical estrus intensity scores were associated with improved conception success. Conclusions Within this relatively structurally homogeneous farm context, reproductive outcomes appear to be more strongly aligned with the accuracy and quality of biological estrus detection than with physical infrastructure differences. These findings support the inference that prioritizing workforce training focused on clinical estrus scoring may represent a more cost-effective route to improving reproductive efficiency and sustaining economic viability than immediate, capital-intensive structural investments, while acknowledging that the purposive sampling design may limit generalizability beyond cows presenting overt estrus signs.