Challenges of Dairy Cattle Genetic Improvement Programs in Northwestern Ethiopia

Ethiopia possesses one of Africa's most diverse cattle gene pools and enjoys favorable agro-ecological conditions and strong cultural demand for dairy products; however, productivity remains constrained by persistent socioeconomic and technical bottlenecks. This study examined how farmer demographics, production goals, management strategies, and systemic constraints influenced the effectiveness of dairy cattle genetic improvement across two agro-ecological zones and major milk-shed areas in the Amhara region. A multistage sampling survey involving 355 smallholder dairy producers (253 mid and 102 highland areas) was conducted using semi-structured questionnaires. Respondents had, on average, 12.19 ± 6.50 years of dairy experience and were 48.19 years old. Breeding-related expenditures showed strong spatial variation: farmers in the midlands and Gondar milk-shed paid substantially higher costs for natural mating and informal AI services, whereas highland farmers benefitted from lower AI fees and shorter distances to service centers (1.40 ± 1.88 km). The Wilcoxon signed-rank test confirmed that milk production was the dominant objective for raising hybrid dairy cattle across both agro-ecologies (overall weighted index: 0.41), signaling a clear transition toward more specialized, market-oriented dairying. Major constraints limiting genetic improvement included security-related disruptions (top constraint, overall index = 0.30; p = 0.002), which restricted access to grazing and AI delivery. Additional challenges included shortages of AI technicians (p = 0.04), escalating feed costs and scarcity, and the inconsistent availability of quality semen. Collectively, these limitations contributed to poor conception outcomes and undermined the performance of AI-driven genetic improvement initiatives. The evaluation of breed and blood level effects demonstrated substantial genetic and economic differences. Holstein Friesian (HF) hybrids exhibited superior productivity, showing the highest average daily milk yields (13.52 ± 4.69 L/day) and significantly outperforming local dairy cows (1.99 ± 0.81 L/day). This translated directly to economic benefits, as HF hybrids generated the highest average Income Per Lactation (peaking at 275,693.93 ETB at > 75% blood level), far exceeding the income from local breeds (35,500 ETB). Furthermore, HF hybrids showed significantly earlier maturity, with a shorter Age at First Service Mating (AAFSM) (1.66 ± 2.10 years) compared to local breeds (3.35 years). Conversely, Jersey hybrids demonstrated better reproductive efficiency with a lower Number of Service Per Conception (NSPC) (1.40 ± 0.58) and higher Conception Rate (CR) (81.29 ± 24.01%), compared to HF hybrids (NSPC: 1.49 ± 0.57; CR: 76.03 ± 24.39). Notably, NSPC declined as the HF exotic blood level increased up to 75%, indicating a sweet spot for optimal crossbred performance. This variable performance across traits highlights an unstable performance paradox. Strengthening reproductive service delivery, improving feed and market systems, investing in breeding infrastructure, and addressing security barriers are essential for advancing sustainable dairy genetic improvement in Northwest Ethiopia.