Additive-Free 3D Printing of Ti3C2Tx MXene-Based Ceramic Inks via Bayesian Optimisation

Printable MXene-ceramic formulations could open new directions in sustainable manufacturing for transportation, energy production, and industrial applications. However, realising such printable systems remains inherently complex due to the limited availability of MXenes and the vast, interdependent formulation–process space characteristic of ceramic printing, often compounded by the use of sacrificial organic additives. Here, we report a sustainable MXene-enabled approach for extrusion-based 3D printing that forgoes stabilisers, binders, and rheology modifiers, enabling the fabrication of green bodies with complex geometries that can be readily rehydrated and reprinted. Using Ti ₃ C ₂ T _x –Al ₂ O ₃ compositions as a model system, we implement a sample-efficient Bayesian optimisation framework to achieve high print fidelity while minimising MXene usage. Optimal print quality was achieved after five optimisation cycles with two candidates per loop. By combining composition simplification with data-driven optimisation, our approach establishes a sustainable processing route for 3D-printable MXene-ceramic inks, providing a foundation for future development of geometrically complex composite architectures.