A systemic appreciation of the interplay between technological transformation, rural welfare, collective action and water conflicts in Mount Kenya

Erratic rainfall, over-withdrawal, and catchment degradation are intensifying water scarcity and heightening highland-lowland tensions in Mount Kenya. Although rainwater harvesting, micro-irrigation, and solar-powered irrigation systems are increasingly promoted as climate-smart strategies, adoption among smallholders remains limited by upfront costs, technical constraints, poor water quality, restricted access to credit, and weak extension services. To examine the systemic barriers to technology adoption, this study conceptualizes the uptake of RWH and SPIS within a Social-Technical-Ecological Systems (STES) framework and applies a participatory qualitative system dynamics approach. Using Causal Loop Diagrams developed from interviews (N = 40), participatory modelling (N = 8), and stakeholder validation, the research maps feedbacks among ecological processes, governance mechanisms, farmer decision-making, technical components and innovation uptake. Findings show that flat-rate water fees, limited monitoring capacity, and insufficient funding for Water Resource Users Associations reinforce overuse and diminish incentives for efficient irrigation adoption. Ecological degradation -including riparian decline, siltation, and pressure over forest systems- further constrains technology compatibility, while risk perception over crop failures, vandalism, and wildlife incursions affect farmers’ willingness to invest. Conversely, cooperative models, revolving funds, and demonstration farms emerge as important leverage points for expanding access to finance, strengthening technical skills, and improving market linkages. The study concludes that sustainable water management requires coordinated interventions that align governance reform, ecological restoration, and farmer-led technological innovation. A STES perspective, while bridging the gap between socio-technical and social-ecological research in sustainability transition, provides a holistic lens to navigate the social-ecological and technical drivers shaping water security and rural resilience in Mount Kenya.