Green Solvents for All Functional Layers Enable Scalable Ambient-air Fabrication of Perovskite Solar Modules

The industrialization of perovskite photovoltaics requires manufacturing routes that are efficient and scalable while meeting stringent safety, health, and environmental criteria. Here we demonstrate fully ambient-air fabrication of perovskite solar minimodules (PSMs) in which all functional layers (electron transport, perovskite, and hole transport) are deposited exclusively from green solvents . We introduce an air-assisted drying strategy that overcomes the long-standing barrier of crystallizing high-quality perovskite films from dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), the safest viable single-solvent alternative. By distributing high-pressure air uniformly over the wet perovskite films through a pre-designed funnel, we achieve rapid drying that yields compact, uniform perovskite layers directly from DMSO inks under ambient-air conditions. This enables PSMs with efficiencies up to 20.4% (4.2 cm ² ) using DMSO alone. Incorporation of a second green solvent, 1-propanol (C3), modulates colloidal stability and crystallization, resulting in efficiencies of 20.7% (10.23 cm ² ), and 21.4% (4.2 cm ² ), representing the highest reported values for all-scalable, all-green, ambient-air processed PSMs. The devices retain 92% of their initial performance after 600 h of maximum power point operation at 40 ^o C. These results eliminate toxic solvents from the manufacturing workflow, outlining a path toward truly sustainable PSM manufacturing.