Suitability analysis of agroforestry in Himachal Pradesh by using a multi-criteria GIS–AHP approach

The Himalayan region requires land-use strategies that harmonize environmental conservation with socio-economic development, making agroforestry a critical pathway for enhancing productivity, ecosystem stability, and livelihood security. In this context, identifying areas where agroforestry can be most effectively implemented is essential for sustainable mountain development. The present study assesses agroforestry land suitability in Himachal Pradesh, a state in the North Western Himalayas, India, using an integrated framework combining the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and geospatial techniques. Eleven criteria- LULC, NDVI, NDWI, slope, aspect, hillshade, elevation, soil type, annual precipitation, distance from road, and distance from streams along with their sub-criteria were weighted using AHP to generate a comprehensive suitability map. The results indicate that 22.53% (12,540.61 km²) of the state is highly suitable and 8.13% (4,527.02 km²) moderately suitable, while nearly 70% (38,605.37 km²) is not suitable, largely due to forest land conversion restrictions, steep terrain, high altitudes, limited moisture indices, and urban or water-covered areas. Accuracy assessment using 400 random points produced an overall accuracy of 84% and a kappa coefficient of 0.78, confirming strong agreement between classified outputs and reference data. The findings provide spatially explicit insights into agroforestry potential across a complex mountainous landscape and offer a decision-support tool for sustainable land-use planning, natural resource management, and environment–development integration in the region.