LED revealed inequality of lighting-scape of global cities

Nighttime lighting is a key indicator of human activity and urban development, reflecting spatial patterns of economic vitality, infrastructure, and energy consumption. Although nighttime lighting improves safety and convenience, it also imposes substantial energy and environmental burdens. In recent years, Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) have increasingly replaced traditional light sources because of their high luminous efficacy and energy-saving potential, yet a comprehensive global assessment of their actual impacts has been lacking. This study presents the first quantitative global-scale lighting-scape that delineates the spatial extent, radiance, and energy consumption of both LED and traditional illumination across 140 major cities. Here we show LEDs illuminate a total area of 39,041 km2, accounting for 45% of the total. In most cities, LEDs exhibit brighter and more energy-efficient lighting, with 128 cities showing higher radiance and 79 demonstrating improved energy efficiency. Nevertheless, a pronounced “rebound effect” is observed in developed regions, where the widespread use of high-power LEDs increases energy consumption and the risk of light pollution. In contrast, the prevalence of low-power LEDs in developing regions enhances energy efficiency. Consequently,severe regional inequalities persist, with per capita lighting area differing by 44-fold and energy consumption differing by more than 160-fold between specific developed and developing cities.