Spatial Association Network of Urban School Commuting Carbon Emissions and Its Influencing Factors: A Case Study of Kaifeng, China

Amid rapid urbanization, promoting low-carbon school commuting is a key strategy for achieving high-quality and sustainable urban development. However, the spatial heterogeneity of school commuting carbon emissions and their network-based interdependencies within cities remain insufficiently understood, posing challenges to the refined governance of urban low-carbon transitions. This study takes Kaifeng—a city undergoing rapid spatial expansion and restructuring—as a case study. Using data from 526 residential neighborhoods, we calculate carbon emissions from junior high school students' commutes and construct a spatial association network of commuting-related carbon emissions across neighborhoods, applying a modified spatial gravity model. Social Network Analysis (SNA) and Quadratic Assignment Procedure (QAP) are employed to examine the structural characteristics of the spatial network and its influencing factors. The results show that: (1) the overall network demonstrates low density and hierarchy, moderate connectivity, and relatively high efficiency; (2) core neighborhoods demonstrate strong spatial linkages with surrounding areas, acting as both "emitters" and "receivers" due to their pronounced radiating and integrative capacities; (3) while most neighborhoods are interconnected—facilitating fluid network flows—their ability to control adjacent areas is limited, resulting in weaking overall network dominance; and (4) distance is the most significant factor shaping the spatial network, with proximity to schools and public transit stations having a statistically positive influence on commuting-related carbon emission patterns.