The Predictive Role of Grammar Knowledge in Lower- and Higher-Order Thinking Skills within Vocational Education

Linguistic proficiency contributes to the learners’ cognitive tasks in higher vocational education. This study examined the relationship between learners’ grammatical knowledge and their performance in lower- and higher-order thinking skills (LOTS) and (HOTS), in an English language lesson in higher vocational classrooms. A total of 134 students participated in the research, completing grammar-focused test items and cognitive assessments designed to measure basic comprehension and advanced analytical skills. The data were analysed using Pearson correlations in SPSS, confirmatory factor analyses and full measurement model within the structural equation modelling framework in Mplus. The measurement instruments exhibited strong reliability, achieving a Cronbach’s alpha of .839 for the 39 items. Confirmatory factor analysis further supported the validity of the three-factor structure, with all model fit indices indicating acceptable to good fit (χ²(699) = 812.51, p = .002, RMSEA = .035, CFI = .904, and TLI = .899), which means that the instruments consistently and accurately measured grammatical knowledge, LOTS and HOTS. The result revealed that grammar knowledge was not directly associated with learners’ LOTS or HOTS performance. However, it significantly predicted their lower- and higher-order thinking performance. A strong correlation was observed between LOTS and HOTS, and further analysis confirmed that grammar indirectly supports HOTS by first strengthening LOTS. Grammar provides a foundation for basic cognitive tasks, which subsequently enable more advanced reasoning. This suggests that grammar serves as an enabling tool rather than a direct driver of higher-order cognition.