Geospatial Assessment of Urban Heat Island and Land Use Land Cover Dynamics in Khulna City Corporation, Bangladesh

Urban sustainability and thermal comfort in developing countries are increasingly threatened by the intensification of the Urban Heat Island phenomenon. This study investigates the spatial dynamics of UHI effects and Land Use and Land Cover changes in Khulna City Corporation, Bangladesh, from 2000 to 2025, using geospatial data to assess the correlation. Six temporal Landsat images—Landsat 5 and Landsat 8—were analyzed, with LULC classification performed in Google Earth Engine using maximum likelihood algorithms. Biophysical indices including NDVI, NDBI, and NDWI were applied to estimate land surface temperature, while correlation and regression provided statistical analysis. The results reveal significant LULC modifications over the 25-year period: built-up areas expanded by 133% from 10.20 km² to 23.76 km², vegetation declined by 41% from 24.45 km² to 14.46 km², and water bodies decreased by 24%. Mean land surface temperature rose from 28.21°C in 2000 to 33°C in 2010, with an extreme peak of 45.26°C recorded that year. Urban Thermal Field Variance Index values ranged from 0.0849 to 0.3013, indicating escalating thermal stress. Strong negative correlations were observed between land surface temperature and NDVI − 0.78 to − 0.85 and NDWI − 0.31 to − 0.44, while NDBI showed positive correlations 0.65 to 0.78. Rapid urban expansion, vegetation loss, and impervious surface growth have intensified UHI effects. The study highlights the urgent need for green infrastructure, water conservation, and climate-sensitive urban planning to mitigate UHI impacts in Bangladesh.