Commonalities in the paternal role within the family system across culturally diverse low- and middle-income countries

Fathers play an integral and multifaceted role within the family system, including in relation to childrearing. While there are context- and culture-specific influences on fathering, existing literature highlights the considerable consistency regarding the child-centred approach to fathering evident across diverse contexts. This paper builds understanding of the commonalities in fathers’ roles in family systems in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Drawing directly on the perspectives of fathers and their family members, we highlight how the roles of fathers are shaped by factors within the family system and subsystems and the surrounding sociocultural context. Data collected during 69 co-design workshops conducted between 2021–2023 with a total of 255 parents and caregivers and 83 experts across 12 LMICs were analysed using a hybrid inductive/theoretical approach to thematic analysis guided by the principles of family systems theory. Three key themes were identified related to the paternal role: the father-family system, the father-mother subsystem, and the father-child subsystem. These themes encompassed five subthemes including fathering to provide and lead, fathering in an unbalanced system, fathering as a partner, fathering to play, and fathering to teach and transmit values. Traditional social norms placed on fathers are associated with an imbalance within the mother-father subsystem in relation to caregiving knowledge and experience, and more practically time and availability. Furthermore, systemic exclusion of fathers from parenting systems and services, and the lack of male caregiver role models, may act as enduring barriers to fathering. To encourage the active participation of fathers in caregiving, this paper proposes the development of inclusive childrearing programs and policies rooted in family systems theory.