Long-Term Dynamics of Mangrove Vegetation Coverages in Indonesia’s National Parks Derived from Remote Sensing Data

Mangroves are coastal ecosystems essential for coastline protection, biodiversity preservation, and carbon sequestration and storage. A primary strategy for mangrove preservation in Indonesia is the establishment of protected zones, including National Parks. Monitoring mangrove ecosystems over extensive spatial areas necessitates sophisticated methodologies, including the utilisation of satellite-based remote sensing data. This study examines the dynamics of mangrove cover change in all National Parks in Indonesia utilising the Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) obtained from Remote Sensing Imagery from 1995 to 2024. We used the Landsat Imagery from Landsat 5 TM (1995 to 2000), Landsat 7 ETM+ (2000 to 2012), and Landsat 8 OLI-TIRS (2013 to 2024). The analysis includes 23 National Parks featuring coastal mangrove ecosystems. Lorentz (LRZ) and Sembilang (SBG) National Parks encompass the most extensive mangrove regions, predominantly situated in significant river estuaries that offer optimal conditions for mangrove proliferation. Mangrove ecosystems in National Parks located on larger islands generally display elevated temporal mean EVI values relative to those on smaller islands. Significant reductions in EVI were noted in Ujung Kulon (UJK), Komodo (KMD), Kutai (KTI), and Way Kambas (WKB) National Parks, while Alas Purwo (APW) exhibited the least loss, indicating comparatively well-preserved mangrove conditions. Trend analysis indicated that over 80% of mangrove regions within each National Park displayed favourable EVI trends, signifying enhancements in mangrove ecological conditions. In contrast, localised regions exhibiting negative trends were predominantly linked to heavy tourist and land conversion operations, as noted in KMD and KTI. Conversely, National Parks situated in more isolated areas, like APW, exhibited constant positive EVI trends, correlating with substantial mangrove area expansion. The mangrove ecosystem cover within National Parks is generally still well preserved, with no extreme changes observed. Several factors, such as tourism activities, forest fires, and land-use conversion, are the main drivers of mangrove cover decline in certain locations. The results of this study are expected to serve as a reference for future mangrove ecosystem management, particularly within the framework of National Park–based conservation.