Fungal-Derived ZnO Nanoparticles Functionalized with Riboflavin and UDP-GlcNAc Exhibit Potent Nematicidal Activity Against Meloidogyne incognita

Sustainable nanotechnology holds transformative potential for crop protection, yet the synergistic mechanisms between nanoparticles and bioactive fungal metabolites remain poorly understood. In this study, we report the green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) using the nematophagous fungus Arthrobotrys oligospora and present an integrated analysis encompassing physicochemical characterization, metabolomics, nematicidal bioassays, and molecular interaction profiling.ZnO NPs were synthesized using fungal culture filtrate and characterized by UV–Vis spectroscopy, FTIR, XRD, Raman spectroscopy, SEM, TEM, and EDAX, confirming monodisperse particles with hexagonal wurtzite crystallinity and nanoscale dimensions (29.45–71.30 nm). Surface functionalization by fungal metabolites including amino acids, dipeptides, B vitamins (notably riboflavin), and the nucleotide sugar UDP-N-acetylglucosamine (UDP-GlcNAc) was revealed by ¹ H NMR-based metabolomics.In vitro assays demonstrated significant, dose- and time-dependent nematicidal activity against Meloidogyne incognita juveniles, with up to 94.8% mortality at 200 µg/mL after 72 hours, significantly surpassing the activity of fungal extract alone (p < 0.05). Mechanistic enhancement was attributed to synergistic interactions between ZnO NPs and riboflavin/UDP-GlcNAc. In silico docking showed strong binding affinities of ZnO–riboflavin to nematode acetylcholinesterase and ZnO–UDP-GlcNAc to chitin synthase, suggesting disruption of neural signaling and cuticle biosynthesis.Overall, A. oligospora -mediated ZnO NPs represent a novel, multifunctional, metabolite-enriched nano-biocomposite with potent nematicidal potential. These findings provide mechanistic insights into nanoparticle–metabolite synergy and present a promising eco-friendly strategy for nematode management in sustainable agriculture.