Coexistence or Conflict? Understanding Human–Macaque Encounters in Delhi’s Urban Sanctuary

Urban–wildlife conflicts present critical challenges for biodiversity conservation and community well-being, particularly in rapidly urbanizing landscapes. This study examines human–rhesus macaque ( Macaca mul ) conflicts around Asola-Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary, New Delhi, by applying a structured conflict classification framework, Dispute, Underlying Conflict, and Deep-rooted Conflict, to quantify conflict depth and guide targeted interventions. Between April and June 2024, we surveyed 200 households at the sanctuary margin, assessing perceptions across five domains (Perception, Situation, History, Willingness, Authority Views) using Likert scales. Statistical analyses comprised Pearson’s chi-square tests to identify significant associations and conditional inference trees to reveal primary predictors of attitudes and conflict severity. Composite indices aggregated responses to represent each conflict level. Findings reveal that macaque encounters are widespread (88%), resulting in property damage (44.5%), increased workload (93%), and physical injuries (39%). Religious and cultural beliefs foster positive attitudes and drive provisioning behaviors, while aggressive macaque actions and dissatisfaction with wildlife authorities (67.5%) exacerbate tensions. Composite indices indicate that most conflicts align with the Underlying Conflict level (OCI = 1.632), with Perception and Situation measures nearing Deep-rooted Conflict, whereas History, Willingness, and Authority Views correspond to Dispute levels. These results underscore the necessity for level-specific mitigation strategies, combining practical dispute resolution, community reconciliation, and institutional trust-building, to promote sustainable human–wildlife coexistence in urban ecosystems.