Elephant crop raiding in northern Tanzania: Spatio-temporal trends and damage assessment in villages adjacent to Mkomazi National Park

Human-elephant conflict (HEC) poses a major threat to biodiversity conservation. This study examined the spatio-temporal patterns and socio-economic impacts of elephant-induced crop damage in Mkonga Ijinyu and Kavambughu villages adjacent to MKONAPA, Tanzania. Data were collected through household surveys (n = 162), key informant interviews, and secondary data records from 2019 to 2023. Results revealed that crop damage was spatially concentrated within 1 km of park boundaries and temporally peaked during harvest seasons from April to July and in October. Maize (88.3%), beans (76.5%), and sunflower (64.2%) were the most frequently damaged crops. Crop raids occurred predominantly at night (98.8%), with elephants destroying up to one acre in a single event. Kavambughu experienced the highest annual loss (527 acres in 2023), while Mkonga Ijinyu reported higher average damage per incident. This finding indicates that crop raiding follows predictable patterns tied to crop maturation, proximity to wildlife habitat, and seasonal forage scarcity inside the park. These behavioral adaptations by elephants amplify conflict intensity and highlight the urgency of targeted interventions. Socio-economically, over half of affected households reported food insecurity and income loss, while all respondents noted reduced school attendance among children demonstrating the broader developmental consequences of HEC. The escalation of elephant-induced crop damage jeopardizes both conservation outcomes and local well-being. This study recommends integrated mitigation strategies including buffer zone reinforcement, adoption of innovative deterrents (e.g., beehive fences and early warning systems), and stronger community engagement. Policy frameworks should prioritize compensation and ecosystem-based planning to foster long-term human-elephant coexistence.