Comparison Between the Effects of Online Collaborative and Simulation- Based Learning on Pedagogical Knowledge and Efficacy in Digital EducationTitle Page

As digital instruction becomes increasingly essential in contemporary education, understanding the distinct impacts of various online teaching approaches on teacher development has become a pressing concern. Although both collaborative learning and simulation-based strategies have been advocated for enhancing instructional quality, comparative evidence in authentic school settings remains limited. This quasi-experimental study investigated the effects of Online Collaborative Learning (OCL) and Simulation-Based Learning (SBL) on pedagogical knowledge and instructional efficacy among primary and secondary school teachers in Taiwan. A total of 674 teachers participated in the study, with 399 assigned to the OCL group and 275 to the SBL group. Each group completed a four-hour digital health education enhancement programme. The OCL group engaged in structured online collaboration and reflective discussion, while the SBL group participated in scenario-based simulations that mimicked practical teaching environments. Pre- and post-intervention assessments using validated instruments demonstrated significant improvements in both pedagogical knowledge and instructional efficacy. The OCL group showed greater gains in pedagogical knowledge, whereas the SBL group achieved stronger improvement in instructional efficacy. In addition, gender and teaching subject specialisation were significantly associated with changes in instructional outcomes. These findings emphasise the need for purposeful alignment between online instructional methods and professional development goals, and they provide empirical support for differentiated design in technology-integrated teacher training programmes.