Unlocking the secret of soft X-ray impact on seed germination

Background Seed quality analysis using X-rays is increasingly explored due to its invasive and rapid nature. Yet, the current absence of reliable and standardised imaging protocols has led to contradictory effects of X-ray exposure in previous studies. Our work systematically investigated the effect of soft X-rays on a wide range of plant materials. Results The baseline of three germination categories was established across seven species before the application of soft X-ray exposure under controlled standard germination conditions. The high inter-varietal and inter-lot variabilities, in addition to the strong interaction between X-ray exposure with variety and lot, reinforced the need to consider genetic and seed quality aspects while evaluating the impacts of X-rays. A slight stimulative effect was observed on most of the species (bean, carrot, fennel, maize, radish, and ryegrass), notably, with a repeated reduction in ungerminated seeds. Intrinsic physical quality holds a crucial value where the minor negative impact observed in soybean originated from its degraded physical quality and not from X-ray exposure, hence, no destructive effects were detected. To understand whether seed size plays a significant role in a seed's response to exposure, linear regression models were built to predict 3D seed traits (volume) from 2D X-ray images. Yet, seed size did not explain the variation in responses to soft X-rays. However, the average density of the seven species explained both their natural germination ( p  < 0.01; R²=0.82) and their germination outcomes after exposure ( p  < 0.01; R²=0.88). Among all species, fennel with notably low density (0.7 g/cm³) demonstrated the most pronounced gains in germination after exposure (4.6 ± 6.3%) due to the stimulative effect. Conclusion Soft X-ray exposure is non-destructive with a beneficial effect on germination but can be strongly influenced by underlying genetics and the physical quality of the tested seeds. This study adopted internationally-standardised germination procedures and tested the effect of soft X-rays across diverse botanical, genetic and seed quality profiles. This work addressed important gaps in evaluating X-ray impacts and proposed a robust design and well-examined radiography protocol for a proven non-destructive seed quality analysis.