Institutional Foundations of Cyber Power: Comparative Security Governance in the US, China, Russia, and Turkey

This study offers a detailed comparative analysis of cybersecurity governance patterns and national security responses in the United States, China, Russia, and Turkey from 2010 to 2023. We employ an innovative mixed-methods approach combining quantitative cyber incident data analysis with qualitative assessments of institutional responses. Through this analysis, we explore how various political systems adapt to the changing landscape of cyber threats. Our analysis shows significant variations in these nations' attack patterns, defensive strategies, and security investments. The United States experiences the highest volume of attacks, averaging 7.07 annually, compared to Russia (3.93), China (2.21), and Turkey (2.21). The study finds a strong positive correlation (0.72) between political stability and cybersecurity expenditure, indicating that institutional factors are crucial in determining a nation's cyber defense capabilities. Additionally, the sectoral analysis highlights healthcare as a universally vulnerable target across all four political systems. The distribution of attack types shows that malicious software is the most common vector across all nations, though the intensity varies. The USA reports 59 incidents, while Russia has 23, China 17, and Turkey 16. Analysis of year-over-year growth rates reveals dramatic fluctuations, with significant spikes in the US, reaching 1000% in 2020. Notably, Russia and China experienced synchronized peaks of 500% in 2022, indicating emerging patterns in global cyber conflicts. Our findings indicate that while cyber threats are a universal challenge, their manifestation and impact are greatly influenced by national contexts and institutional capabilities. This research enhances our theoretical understanding of cybersecurity governance across different political systems and informs practical policy development aimed at improving cyber defense strategies in a multipolar world.