Pack size, home range size and activity pattern of dhole (Cuon alpinus) in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, India: effects of anthropogenic environment use and reproduction

Understanding the ecology of endangered dhole and their responses to anthropogenic environments is important for mitigating conflicts with humans and ensuring conservation efforts for this species. This study investigated the pack size, home range size, reproduction and activity pattern of multiple dhole packs in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, southern India, from September 2011 to August 2015 using direct observation and camera trapping. The findings were compared across dhole packs to assess the influence of reproduction and human-modified environments on their ecology and behaviour. Of the five packs identified (P1–P5), reproduction was observed three times in two packs (P1, P2) with an average litter size of seven and denning between December and February, while the others likely did not reproduce. Group sizes observed outside the den area (mean: 6.6 ± 3.4) decreased from November to December, likely due to pup dispersal and den defense needs. Packs inhabiting the areas with high proportion of anthropogenic environments and feeding on livestock and garbage (P1, P2) had significantly smaller home ranges (7.0–14.4 km²) compared to those in more natural environments (P3, P4: 36.1–40.3 km²), suggesting higher foraging efficiency in human-modified landscapes. The dholes in the study area were primarily diurnal, with 74.4% of activity occurring during daylight hours. They were particularly active in the morning and evening as they frequently took very long rests over six hours during midday. However, the pack with the greatest use of anthropogenic environments (P2) showed cathemeral activity pattern increasing night activity up to 50.5%, probably to avoid encounters with humans. The high mortality of pups estimated in P2 and unnatural deaths of adults observed both in P1 and P2 suggest that the nutritional benefits and increased reproduction in anthropogenic environments could be offset by the higher mortality rates, potentially due to conflicts with humans and diseases transmitted by feral or domestic dogs.