Measurement of 21st-Century Skills: A Psychometric Evaluation of Digital Literacy Assessments Using Structural Equation Modeling and Latent Class Analysis

Recognizing the growing importance of digital competence in contemporary education and the workforce, the study examined the psychometric evaluation of digital literacy assessments designed to measure 21st-century skills, specifically focusing on secondary school students in Ghana. The research employs Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) and Latent Class Analysis (LCA) to assess the validity, reliability, and classification of digital literacy assessments. The study employed an explanatory sequential mixed method design to evaluate the psychometric properties of digital literacy assessments among secondary school students in Ghana. The research integrates quantitative analyses using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) and Latent Class Analysis (LCA) with qualitative insights from interviews and focus groups. A sample of 3,200 students from 64 senior high schools across Ghana’s 16 administrative regions was selected using multi-stage stratified random sampling. The study identifies the measurement structure of digital literacy through SEM, revealing strong psychometric properties (CFI = 0.960, RMSEA = 0.038, SRMR = 0.042). LCA further highlights heterogeneity within the student population, identifying three distinct subgroups with varying digital literacy profiles. Key factors influencing digital literacy include geographic location, with urban students outperforming rural peers (p < 0.01, Cohen’s d = 0.50), and gender, although gender differences were less pronounced (p = 0.08). The qualitative phase uncovers barriers such as limited access to digital tools, language barriers, and insufficient teacher support, which shape students’ digital literacy levels. These findings underscore the importance of contextualizing digital literacy assessments to address disparities and improve educational outcomes. The study offers valuable implications for policy-makers, educators, and researchers seeking to enhance digital literacy in Ghanaian secondary schools.