Comprehensive Health Risk Assessment of Trace Metals in PM 2.5 : An Urban Perspective

Air pollution is one of the most significant problems faced by all countries, including Malaysia. Traffic emissions are a significant contributor to air pollutant emissions, particularly in urban areas, which can have adverse health impacts on vulnerable populations. The study conducted at Jalan Raja Muda Abdul Aziz, Kuala Lumpur, was to determine the concentration of selected trace metals and their health risks to humans through inhalation exposure during the Southwest Monsoon (SW) and Monsoon Transition (IM). The study's results showed that the concentration of PM2.5 was higher during the SW monsoon compared to the IM, at 19.95 µg/m ³ and 13.13 µg/m ³ , respectively. The ∑ ELCR trend for trace metals varies by age group, with adults having the highest levels, followed by children, toddlers, and infants. In addition, Cr for the adult group had the highest CR values during the SW monsoon compared to the IM monsoon with readings of 9.21 × 10 ^− 7 and 7.67 × 10 ^− 7 , respectively. The lung exposure assessment showed that the 60-year-old group of men had the highest amount of PM _2.5 -bound trace metal inhalation. The Multiple-Path Dosimetry Model (MPPD) revealed that the head region (46%) had the highest deposition amount, followed by the pulmonary (45%) and tracheobronchial regions (9%). Deposition in the lobar area is highest in the left lower (LL) (35%) and lowest in the right middle (RM) (7%). The deposition mass (D _m ) was highest for the adult (1.53 x 10 ^− 5 µg) compared to the infant (9.00 x 10 ^− 6 µg). However, the mass of deposition per unit area (D _ma ) indicates that the toddler (0.0467 µg/m ² ) has a higher value than the adult (0.0116 µg/m ² ).In conclusion, exposure to trace metals bound- PM _2.5 in the study area has the potential to have health effects on the surrounding community.