Behavioral response of Bornean ungulates, including bearded pigs and sambar deer, to anthropogenic disturbance in Sabah, Malaysia

Understanding wildlife behavioral responses is crucial for assessing the effects of anthropogenic disturbance. We used camera traps to investigate the behavioral responses of two ungulate species, bearded pigs (Sus barbatus) and sambar deer (Rusa unicolor), to anthropogenic disturbance in three protected areas in Sabah, Malaysia, that have varying levels of human activity. We found that human activities generally influence the activity patterns of both ungulates, albeit with variations among the sites. The temporal activity pattern of bearded pigs was affected by anthropogenic disturbance, especially in the area targeted by poachers. While the core activity pattern of sambar deer remained consistent across sites, poaching pressure appeared to impact their behavior within specific environments. Bearded pigs approached plantations at times of low human activity, presumably to forage, indicating that they adjust spatiotemporal activity patterns to minimize human contact. We observed a reduction in active times for both species at sites of high anthropogenic disturbance. Despite these challenges, both species demonstrated behavioral adaptability to anthropogenic disturbance by utilizing artificial environments such as roads and oil palm plantations as foraging places, thereby potentially compensating for reduced feeding times. Our study underscores the negative impact of human activities on the activity patterns of the two ungulate species. Nevertheless, it also highlights their behavioral plasticity in response to anthropogenic disturbance, suggesting their ability to efficiently utilize alternative food resources. Our methodology provides insights into wildlife management strategies. We recommend urgent long-term monitoring of wildlife population dynamics, including behavioral responses, especially in Southeast Asia.