On the Life History of the Honey Bee Superorganism

The Western honey bee, Apis mellifera, forms large colonies, which represent organisms in their own right, so-called superorganisms. Although the honey bee is one of the best studied species of insects, there are still contradictory explanations in use for characteristics as fundamental as colonial lifespan. In this review, considering colonies as potentially immortal is debunked due to a lack of conformity with biological convention. What has traditionally been referred to as honey bee colony represents a matrilineage of superorganisms. By proposing a refined colonial life cycle, the analogy between animals and superorganisms is taken further, thereby visualizing superorganismal traits in a new light. Zygotic, embryonic, fetal, juvenile and adult stages are identified during superorganismal ontogeny. An image of the honey bee superorganism emerges as viviparous with strictly sexual reproduction, which is engaged in various forms of maternal care. A multitude of pathways to sexual reproduction are analyzed. Since swarming precedes fertilization, it can be viewed as superorganismal autotomy rather than reproduction. While the prime swarm serves the function of allowing maternal superorganisms to survive reproduction, afterswarms are a means to produce more than one offspring per reproductive cycle. The implications of the findings for honey bee parasitology, monitoring and beekeeping are discussed.