Rooftop Photovoltaics as Negative Load to Mitigate Electric Vehicle Charging Peaks in the Jamali Grid by 2060 to Achieve Net Zero Emission in Indonesia

Indonesia’s long-term climate strategy targets net-zero emissions by 2060; in this context, this paper develops a simulation for the Java–Madura–Bali (Jamali) grid to quantify the joint impact of electric-vehicle (EV) uptake and rooftop photovoltaic (PV) “negative load” on system performance over 2025–2060. Historical statistics and national planning projections are used to calibrate annual capacity, peak load, and energy trajectories, which are then downscaled to a 168-hour representative week and a 365-day year. EV charging demand is generated from an hourly initial-charging-time distribution with state-of-charge–dependent AC/DC profiles, while rooftop PV is modeled using hourly irradiance and performance parameters. A 5×5 policy matrix (EV: BAU, Subsidy, Regulation, Charge-Time Management, Combination; PV: BAU, Subsidy, Regulation, Smart-Home, Combination) is evaluated using a min–max composite index (40% weekly supply-demand balance, 40% annual production–consumption balance, 20% policy cost), where higher values are preferable. Results show that EV3_PV1 (regulated EV growth with BAU PV) achieves the highest average composite score, EV4_PV1 provides the best adequacy, and EV3_PV3 yields the poorest adequacy, while EV3_PV1 and EV1_PV3 define the best and worst long-term production–consumption balance, respectively. EV1_PV1 is the least costly pathway and EV5_PV5 the most expensive, indicating that moderate, regulation-driven and charge-time–oriented strategies outperform highly interventionist EV–PV packages when adequacy, balance, and cost are jointly considered.