Conceptual Foundations of Knowledge in Philosophy, Science, Language, Education, and Artificial Intelligence

Humans leverage knowledge to solve problems, and so do embedded systems like programmable machines, robots, and digital twins. Consequently, understanding critical aspects of knowledge, that is, its type, nature, formation, application, and refinement, is not just essential, but also beneficial for advancing both human-centric and machine-centric systems. However, the notion of knowledge is continuously evolving as new examples and counterexamples emerge, adding layers of complexity to its understanding. In addition, knowledge-centric entities such as truth, belief, justification, data, probability, possibility, uncertainty, learning, and knowing create a rich and intricate ecosystem. By understanding these, we can unlock the practical benefits of knowledge in our systems. From this perspective, this article delves into the conceptual foundations of knowledge scattered across various disciplines, including philosophy, science, language, education, and artificial intelligence. By doing so, it aims to provide a cohesive framework for researchers and practitioners from diverse fields to identify vital issues before creating human- and machine-centric systems. The exploration begins with the theories of knowledge articulated by Hume and Kant, then transitions to a pragmatist viewpoint. It also investigates the principles of knowledge as articulated within the philosophy of science and language. Furthermore, the article reviews how knowledge is framed by diverse educational theories. Finally, it presents the foundations of digital knowledge, the cornerstone of artificial intelligence, focusing on propositional logic, modal logic, multi-valued (fuzzy) logic, and machine learning. This comprehensive examination, invites all system developers to gain insights into the underlying principles governing human reasoning, interpretation, and learning, empowering them to design artificially intelligent systems that align with these fundamental principles.