Biomarkers of Age-Related Macular Degeneration: A Translational Perspective

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a leading cause of irreversible central vision loss characterized by complex multifactorial pathogenesis involving genetic, inflammatory, oxidative, and environmental factors. This review provides a comprehensive translational overview of biomarkers associated with both dry and wet forms of AMD, integrating evidence across human studies and preclinical mouse models, including chemical, genetic, and laser-induced paradigms. We summarize key tissue, fluid, and systemic biomarkers linked to oxidative stress, inflammation, complement activation, extracellular matrix remodeling, angiogenesis, and gut microbiota alterations. Emphasis is placed on parallels and discrepancies between human AMD and animal models, highlighting opportunities and challenges in biomarker validation and application. The review underscores the potential of integrated biomarker profiles from ocular tissues, blood, tear fluid, aqueous and vitreous humor, and gut microbiome samples for advancing early diagnosis, therapeutic monitoring, and personalized treatment strategies. Future directions emphasize bridging experimental and clinical data to enhance biomarker-driven precision medicine in AMD.