Formulation of Plant–based Meat Analogues: Protein Sources, Functional Additives, and Technological Advancements

The exponential demand for plant–based meat analogues (PBMAs) can be attributed to the amassing need for sustainable and restorative proteins in the perspective of global food security. However, the development of meat analogues requires suitable physicochemical and techno–functional properties that effectively replicate the appearance, texture, sensorial characteristics, and dietary profile of conventional animal meat. In addition, consumers seek organic, ethical, clean–label, and eco–friendly products that address challenges in the current meat market. This comprehensive review provides updated information about novel protein sources from legumes, oilseeds, cereals, pseudocereals, mushrooms, fungi, and algae species; key ingredients such as binding agents, colorants, flavorants, and chemical constituents to improve the functionality of PBMAs; and technological processing strategies that enhance the microstructural organization of meat substitutes. Moreover, the nutritional composition of phyto–proteins and mycoproteins has been compiled, as understanding the fundamental role of each ingredient in PBMAs is crucial for its formulation. Future research should be directed towards improving hybrid protein–protein interactions, fiber alignment, palate diversification, and thermomechanical techniques that encourage overall health benefits. Strategies for incorporating preservatives to facilitate longer shelf–lives and feasibility for large–scale production should be further explored to drive innovation in the meat analogues industry.