Bridging the Construction Productivity Gap—A Hierarchical Framework for the Age of Automation, Robotics and AI

The construction industry continues to lag behind other sectors in productivity, largely due to fragmented value streams, inconsistent metrics, and limited uptake of scalable process improvements. To address these shortcomings, the authors developed a novel, four-level hierarchical productivity measurement framework that integrates operational, tactical, strategic, and normative layers through a modular logic. At its core, the framework applies standardized, repeatable process steps—mapped using Value Stream Mapping (VSM)—to capture real-time indicators such as input efficiency, output effectiveness, and First-Time Quality at the operational level. These metrics are aggregated tactically through takt-time adherence, schedule reliability, and workload balance (via coefficient of variation), providing insight into trade synchronization and workflow stability. Strategic productivity is measured using flow efficiency and multi-resource utilization, while the normative level combines these metrics into an Overall Productivity Index (OPI) that also incorporates Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) KPIs. This article’s contribution lies in synthesizing existing productivity theories into a physically consistent, multi-scalar ontology for construction, bridging micro-level execution with macro-level decision-making. Unlike prior models that treat construction tasks or projects in isolation, our framework enables bottom-up traceability and cross-project comparability, even in fragmented and highly variable environments. In addition, the framework forms a robust foundation for future automation, robotics, and AI deployment. By structuring productivity data across abstraction levels, it facilitates real-time monitoring, machine learning integration, and intelligent control loops. Applications include sensor-equipped civil works, AI-based activity recognition, and agentic AI systems that autonomously detect bottlenecks, re-sequence workflows, and optimize resource allocation. Finally, this paper contextualizes the framework within over a century of productivity research, offering a critical review of traditional methods and highlighting how digital technologies can unlock transformative gains. The proposed framework not only advances theoretical discourse but also provides a practical measurement architecture to guide investment decisions in construction robotics, digitalization, and platform-based project delivery models.