Bridging Gender Gaps in Eastern European Leadership: A Structural Proxy Analysis of Self-Efficacy, LMX, and Organizational Behavior

This study investigates gender disparities in leadership across four Eastern European countries, Romania, Poland, Hungary, and Bulgaria, using panel data from 2019 to 2023. Drawing on theories of self-efficacy, leader–member exchange (LMX), and organizational behavior, we propose a proxy-based framework to operationalize these constructs at the structural level. Self-efficacy is proxied by female representation in senior management and ministerial roles; LMX is inferred from part-time employment rates and career interruptions due to childcare; and organizational behavior is assessed through the alignment between educational attainment and leadership roles.Using ordinary least squares (OLS) regression, we analyze cross-country and indicator-level differences, as well as time trends. The results indicate a marked underperformance in Hungary and Romania relative to Bulgaria, especially in executive leadership roles. While women are most represented in parliamentary positions, ministerial posts remain the most resistant to gender parity.Our findings reveal that educational gains among women are not translating into equitable leadership representation, and that entrenched labor market structures continue to impede women's advancement. This study contributes to the broader understanding of how macro-level constraints both reflect and reinforce psychological and relational barriers to leadership.