Psychological and financial impacts of COVID-19-related travel measures: An international cross-sectional study

  1. Pippa McDermid
  2. Soumya Sooppiyaragath
  3. Adam Craig
  4. Meru Sheel
  5. Katrina Blazek
  6. Siobhan Talty
  7. Holly Seale

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Abstract

The impact of COVID-19 international travel restrictions has to date, not been fully explored, and with the ongoing threat that new variants could potentially restrict movement further, it is important to consider the impacts that travel restrictions have on community members. This study aimed to evaluate the psychological and financial impact of COVID-19 travel restrictions on those separated from their partners or immediate families, as well as temporary visa holders who were unable to migrate.

Methods

Between 4 November 2021 to 1 December 2021, we executed a cross-sectional online survey targeting three specific groups; (1) those stranded from their partners; (2) those stranded from immediate families; and (3) temporary visa holders unable to migrate or cross international borders. We collected data on respondents’ demographic profile; the nature of COVID-19-related travel impacts; depression, anxiety, and stress levels (using the validated DASS-21); and finally, data on respondents financial, employment and accommodation situation.

Results

1363 respondents located globally completed the survey. 71.2% reported financial stress, 76.8% ( x ¯ = 11.57 , SD = 5.94) reported moderate-to-extremely severe depression, 51.6% ( x ¯ = 6.80 , SD = 5.49) moderate-to-extremely severe anxiety, and 62.6% ( x ¯ = 11.52 , SD = 5.55) moderate-to-extremely severe stress levels. Statistically significant factors associated with moderate-to-extremely severe depression, anxiety, and stress included being female, chronic illness, and experiencing financial stress. Employment during COVID-19 –specifically essential services workers or unemployed—was associated with higher levels of anxiety and stress, with only essential workers being a predictor of higher stress severity. Factors that provided psychological protection included being older and having children.

Conclusion

This study is one of the first to explore the impact COVID-19-related international travel restrictions have had on the financial status and psychological health of affected individuals. It highlights the significant human cost associated with the restrictions and identifies psychologically vulnerable populations. These results will help the design of targeted health and social policy responses.

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  1. Version published to 10.1371/journal.pone.0271894
  2. ScreenIT

    SciScore for 10.1101/2022.02.21.22271299: (What is this?)

    Please note, not all rigor criteria are appropriate for all manuscripts.

    Table 1: Rigor

    EthicsIRB: Ethical approval for this study was granted by the UNSW Human Research Ethics Committee (#210418).
    Consent: All respondents indicated their consent to participate.
    Sex as a biological variablenot detected.
    Randomizationnot detected.
    Blindingnot detected.
    Power Analysisnot detected.

    Table 2: Resources

    Software and Algorithms
    SentencesResources
    All analyses were conducted with SPSS (22).
    SPSS
    suggested: (SPSS, RRID:SCR_002865)

    Results from OddPub: We did not detect open data. We also did not detect open code. Researchers are encouraged to share open data when possible (see Nature blog).

    Results from LimitationRecognizer: We detected the following sentences addressing limitations in the study:
    Limitations: This study has several limitations. Firstly, the results are based on a cross-sectional survey design, and lacks longitudinal follow up. Most respondents were female (73.5%), educated to a tertiary level (91.9%), with an ability to read English and exhibit a competent level of computer literacy due to the online survey format, which could bias results as it may not be fully representative of those impacted by international travel restrictions globally. Secondly, while we used a validated tool, our psychometric results were based on self-reporting, and as such could raise some subjectivity and bias issues as the scores reflect psychological distress not diagnosed by mental health professionals. Further, a baseline measure of mental health was not available or collected, and hence measurement in change due to COVID-19-related travel restrictions was not possible. Despite these limitations, the study provides novel insights into the wider impacts of travel restrictions beyond infection control. Conclusion: Our findings suggest that international travel restrictions have significantly contributed to severe symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress, as well as financial distress. Results indicate that for those impacted by COVID-19 related travel restrictions, being female, chronic illness and financial stress were predictors of moderate to extremely severe DAS. Work status during COVID-19, specifically being an essential services worker or unemployed were both pred...

    Results from TrialIdentifier: No clinical trial numbers were referenced.

    Results from Barzooka: We did not find any issues relating to the usage of bar graphs.

    Results from JetFighter: We did not find any issues relating to colormaps.

    Results from rtransparent:
    • Thank you for including a conflict of interest statement. Authors are encouraged to include this statement when submitting to a journal.
    • Thank you for including a funding statement. Authors are encouraged to include this statement when submitting to a journal.
    • No protocol registration statement was detected.

    Results from scite Reference Check: We found no unreliable references.

    About SciScore

    SciScore is an automated tool that is designed to assist expert reviewers by finding and presenting formulaic information scattered throughout a paper in a standard, easy to digest format. SciScore checks for the presence and correctness of RRIDs (research resource identifiers), and for rigor criteria such as sex and investigator blinding. For details on the theoretical underpinning of rigor criteria and the tools shown here, including references cited, please follow this link.

  3. Version published to 10.1101/2022.02.21.22271299 on medRxiv