Distinguishing Personality Functioning, Normal-Range Traits, and Maladaptive Traits in Offenders

The alternative model of personality disorders (AMPD) has gained widespread recognition, yet the extent of overlap between personality functioning, maladaptive traits, and normal-range traits—and its implications for clinical practice—remains debated. Existing evidence is largely based on cross-sectional designs and Western convenience samples. In this registered report, we tested 11 preregistered hypotheses examining associations and distinctions among personality functioning, normal-range traits, and maladaptive traits in two Chinese offender samples (Sample 1: N  = 1,395; Sample 2: N  = 1,017) using four waves of data collected over 1 year. Results revealed notable differences in the distributions and longitudinal properties of personality functioning and traits. Moreover, maladaptive traits were partly jointly predicted by personality functioning and normal-range traits. With this study, we provide the most comprehensive longitudinal test to date of similarities and differences between personality functioning and traits and extend the AMPD literature to a non-Western offender population in which personality assessment may be particularly informative.