STELAR-X: Scaling Coalescent-Based Species Tree Inference to 100,000 Species and Beyond

Summary methods reconstruct species trees from collections of gene trees by accounting for gene tree discordance, and offer a statistically consistent framework for phylogenomic inference under the multispecies coalescent model. While existing triplet- and quartet-based approaches such as ASTRAL and STELAR have provable statistical consistency, their running time and memory usage restrict their applicability to ultra-large datasets. We introduce STELAR-X, a highly scalable triplet-based phylogenetic inference algorithm that achieves an asymptotically optimal memory complexity of O ( nk ) for n species and k gene trees–essentially matching the input size and allowing analyses to remain feasible as long as the input trees fit in memory–while also substantially reducing running time. STELAR-X achieves this by a comprehensive re-engineering of the underlying data structures and algorithms. We introduce a novel, compact integer tuple-based encoding of tree bipartitions and efficient procedures for rapid pre-computation of bipartition weights. We further leverage GPU parallelism for fast pre-computation of necessary weights. This improved and redesigned computational framework underpins a dynamic programming algorithm with substantially reduced computational overhead. Extensive experiments demonstrate that STELAR-X achieves unprecedented scalability. On simulated datasets with 10,000 taxa and 1,000 gene trees, STELAR-X runs 712× faster than ASTRAL-MP (the most scalable variant of ASTRAL) while using 7.5× less CPU memory. Most significantly, STELAR-X analyzed a dataset of 100,000 taxa and 1,000 genes in 8.5 hours using 86 GB RAM, and a 100,000-gene dataset with 1000 taxa in just 4 minutes using 106 GB RAM – scales that were previously intractable for statistically consistent summary methods. STELAR-X is publicly available at https://github.com/aaniksahaa/STELAR-X .