A Hybrid Multiscale Model for Predicting CAR-T Therapy Outcomes in Solid Tumors

T cell distribution within tumors (“tumor hotness”) critically determines immunotherapy success. However, despite numerous strategies to enhance intratumoral T cell accumulation—such as multi-target CAR-Ts and combinatorial approaches—limited mechanistic understanding of T cell–microenvironment interactions has constrained progress. To address this, we developed a physiological mechanistic model of the 3D tumor microenvironment (TME) to evaluate CAR-T performance under environmental fluctuations and different infusion strategies. The model integrates key vascular (rolling, adhesion, endothelial suppression) and interstitial (ECM density, metabolic competition, chemokine sensitivity) barriers. Our simulations reveal that collagen density and metabolic competition dominate CAR-T efficacy. Enhancing vascular adhesion improves infiltration but remains limited by collagen and metabolism. Endothelial suppression markedly reduces tumor hotness, while its alleviation enhances response. Systemic infusion yields higher tumor hotness than intratumoral delivery, but combined routes or reduced collagen restore efficacy even in dense tumors. This mechanistic framework enables rational optimization of CAR-T strategies.