Dominance of indirect effects of deer populations on soil biodiversity

Deer abundances and distributions have expanded at increasing rates in several regions across the globe due to human-driven land use change, uncontrolled introductions and reintroductions, and insufficient top-down control by human or natural predators. Yet, the impact of unsustainable density of deer on the belowground component of ecosystems is understudied. Ireland is a good model for anthropic environmental context in which the population of large herbivores is not regulated by large predators nor planned hunting management. Through a combination of camera trapping paired with soil and vegetation surveys conducted with high-throughput technology, we monitored 50 sites in Irish woodlands to study the effect of varying sika deer ( Cervus nippon ) relative densities on soil biota. Site-level deer intensity of use correlated with vegetation through an increase in litter and moss quantity and reduction in understory vegetation. Furthermore, the effect covaried with soil pH and cascaded on soil microarthropod, bacterial and fungal communities, with more opportunistic taxa linked to high relative deer densities. We also found that variation in deer intensity of use directly affects vertebrate communities, which shifted towards a dominance of foxes, squirrels, cats and dogs – species more commonly associated to human-dominated landscapes – and a reduction in birds and mustelids, which also cascaded on soil biota. Our results thus support the hypothesis that deer overabundance has a strong potential to drive the structure of soil biota mostly through indirect effects via vertebrate fauna and vegetation, acting as a powerful ecosystem engineer. Future studies will have to experimentally tease apart the mechanisms underpinning the patterns documented in this study.