Retrospective image analysis for long-term demography using Google Earth imagery

1. Ecosystems are rapidly degrading. Widely used approaches to monitor ecosystems to manage them effectively are both expensive and time consuming. The recent proliferation of publicly available imagery from satellites, Google Earth, and citizen-science platforms holds the promise to revolutionising ecological monitoring and optimising their efficiency. However, the potential of these platforms to detect species and track their population dynamics remains under-explored. 2. We introduce a fast, inexpensive method for retrospective image analysis combining current ground-truth data with historical RGB imagery from Google Earth to extract long-term demographic data. We apply this method to three case studies involving two major Mediterranean invasive plant taxa with contrasting growth forms. Specifically, we: (1) utilise deep learning to automatically detect individuals of prickly pear ( Opuntia sp.) across various Mediterranean habitats and image resolutions; (2) reconstruct 10 years of spatially explicit recruitment rates for Opuntia along a climatic gradient; and (3) quantify nearly 20 years of growth dynamics for the clonal invader Carpobrotus sp. in two contrasting environments. 3. Our object detection model, trained with Google Earth imagery, achieves 60-80% success in identifying individuals of Opuntia , regardless of habitat type. Model performance increases with target species colour consistency and contrast, as well with the usage of basic data augmentation techniques. Detection is constrained by individual area (<4 m ² ) but captures 80% of the examined population. 4. Beyond detection, our time-series analysis of publicly available imagery enables detailed population monitoring. With 10-year image series available for Spain, Greece, and the UK, and 20 years for Portugal, we successfully estimate annual recruitment and growth rates and their climatic sensitivity, identify productive and unproductive years, estimate individual age, characterise population structure, model size-age relationships, and identify recruitment hotspots for targeted management. 5. Our pipeline opens new avenues for cost-effective, large-scale demographic monitoring by retrospectively harnessing open-access imagery. While demonstrated here with invasive plants, we discuss the broad applicability of our approach across taxa and ecosystems. The use of retrospective image analysis for long-term demography with Google Earth imagery has the potential to expedite conservation decisions, support effective restoration, and enable robust ecological forecasting in the Anthropocene.