Atypical Replication Error Pattern and Limited Repair Efficiency Contribute to Elevated Mutation Rate in Phage lambda

Understanding the rate and nature of spontaneous mutations is crucial for understanding and modulating the pace and trajectory of evolution. Yet, both remain poorly characterized in double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) phages, despite their relevance for phage-based therapies. Here, we address this gap for the dsDNA phage lambda, using four complementary approaches: mutation accumulation assay combined with whole-genome sequencing, mutation visualization assay, duplex sequencing and fluctuation assay. We find that the mutation rate of wild-type phage lambda is 4.9 ± 1.8 x10 ^-9 per base per replication, approximately 15 times lower than previously estimated and about 20 times higher than that of its host, Escherichia coli ( E. coli ). Inactivation of Mismatch Repair (MMR), a major conserved cellular system for mutation avoidance, increases the lambda mutation rate by only 2-to 10-fold, in contrast to the approximately 150-fold increase in E. coli , however lambda does not exhibit the characteristic mutational bias associated with MMR deficiency. Interestingly replication of the lambda genome generates an error spectrum distinct from that of E. coli , characterized by a marked increase in transversions, poorly repaired by MMR. Together, these results reveal that lambda exhibits a replication error profile that is less amenable to repair, likely contributing to its elevated mutation rate.