Intergenerational effects of maternal and paternal childhood maltreatment on offspring cortical gyrification are sex-specific: the Transmit Radiant Individuality to Offspring (TRIO) study

The effects of parental childhood maltreatment (CM) can be transmitted across generations; however, the underlying sex-specific biological mechanisms are poorly understood. To better understand how parental adversity is passed on to offspring, we investigated the impact of maternal and paternal CM on the local gyrification index (LGI) of offspring using parent–offspring trio data. The LGI was selected as a key neurodevelopmental metric because it is thought to reflect the fetal environment and remain relatively stable postnatally, making it less susceptible to later life experiences. Using multiple regression, we analyzed sex- stratified associations between parental CM subtypes and the offspring LGI and tested for mediation by parental psychosocial functioning. The results revealed a distinct parent-of-origin, sex-specific pattern: maternal emotional abuse was associated with a lower LGI in male offspring, whereas paternal physical neglect was associated with a lower LGI in female offspring. These associations were not mediated by the current mental health or marital relationships of the parents. Collectively, these findings provide compelling evidence that the neurodevelopmental consequences of parental CM can be biologically embedded in the next generation even before birth.