Ecological inference from isolated vertebrae: Evaluating functional signal across the carnivoran spine

Understanding the ecological adaptations of extinct species is a central goal in vertebrate palaeontology, but is often limited by the incomplete nature of the fossil record. While skulls and limb bones have traditionally been emphasized in functional and ecological reconstructions, vertebrae are frequently overlooked. While isolated vertebrae are among the most commonly preserved postcranial elements, they are rarely found as complete vertebral columns, raising the question of whether isolated elements alone can yield meaningful ecological information. In this study, we assess the potential of vertebral morphology to predict two key ecological traits, running speed and hunting mode, using three-dimensional geometric morphometrics across ten presacral vertebrae from a broad sample of extant carnivorans. We evaluate the predictive power of individual vertebrae, regional groupings (cervical, thoracic, lumbar), and multi-element combinations. Our results show that certain vertebrae retain strong ecological signals on their own, especially the first thoracic and lumbar elements. However, combining multiple vertebrae often dilutes ecological signal, likely due to their differing functional roles along the axial column. This highlights the importance of treating vertebral regions independently and suggests that single, strategically informative vertebrae may outperform multi-element approaches in some contexts. We apply this framework to the extinct dire wolf ( Canis dirus ) and find contrasting signals along the spine, the first thoracic and lumbar vertebrae suggest adaptations for faster locomotion, while some cervical vertebrae indicate an intermediate running speed. This mosaic supports the idea that C. dirus occupied a complex ecological niche involving both active predation and scavenging. These findings underscore the power of vertebral morphology for ecological inference in fossil taxa, particularly when remains are fragmentary, and argue for a more nuanced use of isolated axial elements in reconstructing extinct carnivoran behaviour.